The Quranic Message and prescriptions, in their coverage, are not confined to geographical conditions or cultural settings of Arabian Peninsula only. It is a universal Message sans borders. Answers to all possible queries about Oneness of God, rejecting all perverse prevailing and past practices and beliefs and those arising in different societies at different times, have been provided in this Surah, covering all situations and circumstances. "The basic thing in the spiritual reality, that we call Islam, Corbin tells us, is the phenomenon of the Book. Islam is a religion of the Book, but not merely in the sense that it possesses a scripture once revealed to the Prophet (Peace be upon him) by God. For, the Quran was not meant only for the time and circumstances of seventh-century Arabia; in its larger significance the phenomenon of the Book signifies a continuing guidance, a living and ongoing truth which sustains the spirituality of those with eyes to see. What is important about the Quran is not only what it says, its literal sense in classical Arabic; were that the case, it would now be a dead book, relevant only for the time in which it came and to those who were then alive. No, in addition to the literal sense it is essential to comprehend the meaning of the Book. There are the Arabic words and their plain sense, but there is also something more, something beyond, to which the words point.the Quran has both an obvious, literal, external, and temporal sense as well as a hidden, spiritual, internal, and transtemporal meaning." (Charles J. Adams, The Hermeneutics of Henry Corbin, edited by Richard C. Martin in Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies, p.138)

Before offering answers and explanations from Surah Ikhlaas, let us examine some concepts, about God and gods, prevailing at different times in different societies, and clarifications provided by the Quran. In this regard, among many elaborate books and references, Dictionary of Religions, edited by John R. Hinnells provides very precise account of various concepts. These myths and mythologies of various people at different times, about God and gods, may be kept in mind, when we finally come to discuss some terms, particularly Huwa, Allah, Ahad, and As-Samad, based on the Quranic response to such silly questions, as were posed, basically emerging from superstition and ignorance.

Hindu Concepts
A Hindu concept, Avatara, signifies 'descent' (ava: down) of deity to earth. Vishnu is the major deity. It is thought to assume human or animal form from time to time to save world from imminent destruction or chaos. Vishnu is believed to have assumed, in the past, nine human, non-human and hybrid forms. For example, Rama-with-the-axe, as Brahman, destroyed Kshatriya class, when there was a danger that they would dominate the world. The story probably reflects a conflict in early times between the Brahman class and Kshatriyas for social and political supremacy.

In this regard, Hindu view about Budha, is interesting: "The inclusion of the Budha in this list of Hindu manifestations of the deity has been explained variously: as a way of subsuming the cult of the Budha and bringing it under Brahmanical control, and as a subtle way of discrediting the Budha by interpreting the appearance of the Lord Vishnu in the form of the Budha (heretic) as a means of leading astray evil men." (John. R. Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions)

How difficult it could be to reason out or argue on the basis of sound logic to portray God, Lord-Master-Almighty of the universe, as completely helpless, so much so that He has to descend to the earth Himself to suffer exiles in jungles or be crucified, etc., etc. at the hands of His own mortal creation!!

"O you men! It is you that have need of Allah. But Allah is the One free of all want,
Worthy of ever all Thankful-Praise." 35-15

Many features of Hinduism seem to be derived from Indus Valley (Moen-jo-Daro, 2500 BCE.), e.g.: cult of mother-goddess; fertility deity (lord of animals); and large part played by animals, specially bull, although not cow at that time.

Before we discuss other aspects of polytheism, look at following news items about holiness straying in streets and man made industry manufacturing idols, in present times:

"For centuries, devout Indian Hindus have said their daily prayers before images of their favourite idols carved out of metal or clay by village craftsmen. Nowadays, factories in agnostic, communist China are producing Ganesha, Krishna and other idols out of plastic and porcelain at such low costs and high quality that Indians are lapping them up. India's new found love for mass-produced, "Made in China" images of idols is driving many in the poorest sections of the nation's traditional idol-making industry out of business, repeating a pattern seen in its toy-making industry.

"India is our biggest market," said Lin Yipeng, whose China-based company exported $2 million of Indian idols to India last year. "We send containers to Mumbai, to Delhi, to Chennai every week and we're doing very well. Everyone wants them because their design and quality is very nice." (Rajat Bhattacharya, 'Godless' China making idols for Indians, Dawn, September 8, 2005, Singapore)

Authorities have started inserting microchips into cows to tackle the decades-old problem of cattle roaming freely in streets of Indian capital.. The move came after Delhi High Court slammed civic authorities for failing to round up cows, considered holy by Hindus, and ordered officials to pay 2,000 rupees to any one who brings in a stray. (Reuters, 'India takes high-tech solution to roaming cows', The News, August 12, 2005)

A short list of gods, goddesses and ritual objects of Budhism and Hinduism in Nepal compiled by Jnan Bahadur Sakya is given at Appendix-5.

Totemic Ancestors, Owners and Guardian Spirits

Totem (Totemism) is an animal or plant species or other natural phenomenon, believed to be related to origin, welfare and organization of human group. Its symbolic function in social cohesion was stressed by Durkheim. Structuralists, like Levi-Strauss, emphasize role of distinctive and ambivalent totem-concepts in communication of meaning.

Altjiranga (Alcheringa) is the concept of sacred time of Australian religion, referring to its beginning. It is believed that at that time primordial mythical beings (totemic ancestors), in human or animal form roamed earth and made it habitable. This can perhaps be extended as a version of explanation nearer to Darwinism, which attempts at scientific explanation of evolution of man in the animal world. The Quran explains scientifically, at different places, the process of creation of man. It also tells us that man (Adam) was created as a humanbeing and all humanbeings have been multiplied from one man:

"O mankind! Reverence your Guardian-Lord, Who created you from a single person. And created, of like nature, his mate. And from them twain scattered countless men and women. Fear Allah, through Whom you demand your mutual (rights), and reverence the wombs (that bore you). For, Allah ever watches over you." 4-1 (Translation Abdullah Yusuf Ali)

"We have indeed created man in the best of moulds."95-4 "Man, We (Allah) did create from a quintessence of clay." 23-12

North American Indian hunting tribes believe that animal species are governed by a supernatural owner (owner of animals). This prototypical figure in myth is arranged in a hierarchical order with other owners of animal species. A close parallel is drawn between social structure in such hunting groups and those believed to be present in animal world. A universal ruler is placed over all other owners. Success in hunting is attributed to favourable relationship with the owner, either through individual or collective rituals, where the owner is identified with a person's guardian spirit. Heroic tales and poems are considerably influenced by the concept of guardian spirit, in different societies, e.g. in Irish and Icelandic literature. This may be recalled when we discuss divinity attached to heroes.

It may be clarified that concepts of totemic ancestors and guardian spirits are different from Spiritualism (belief in the soul of the dead). In Altjiranga, it is believed that totemic ancestors' spirits remain in land or rocks or sacred objects, periodically incarnated in human foetuses. The term Fylgia is used in early Icelandic literature for a shape accompanying a man through life. It resembles an external soul, in animal form, visible in dreams or to those with second sight, and capable of journey away from the body.

Israrul Haque, in his article "Belief in life after death", (The Dawn, 8.9.2000), explains material and spiritual aspects of death and life:

"It is the biological life that comes to an end with death. But not the spiritual life, which survives the death."

"But He (Allah) fashioned him in proportion, and breathed in him, Something of His Spirit"..32-9

Death can not put an end to "The Something of His Spirit", that Allah breathed into the man and which resides in man's body but departs from the body as soon as he dies and is not available to be buried with his dead body. What happens to that spirit i.e. the soul? "It is the man's soul, the repository of his conscience, that the angel takes charge of upon his death.."

"The angel of death put in charge of you, will take charge of your soul; that shall be brought back to your Lord-Master-Owner" 32-11

The Quran reveals that there is a comprehensive security system of guarding human beings, celestial arrangement and everything:

"For each (person) there are (angels) in succession, before and behind him. They guard him by Command of Allah." 13-11

"He (Allah alone) knows the unseen-hidden. Nor does He make anyone acquainted with His mysteries, (26) "Except a messenger, whom He has chosen. And then He makes a band of watchers march before him and behind him." 27 72-26 & 27 "But verily, over you, (are appointed) to protect you" (10) "kind and honourable, writing down." (11), "They know all that you do." (12) 82-10 to 12 "He (Allah) is Irresistible, (Watching) from above over His worshipers. And He sets guardians over you. At length when death approaches one of you, Our angels take his soul, and they never fail in their duty." 6-61 Also see 86-4 God has secured the celestial system: "It is We (Allah), Who have set out the constellations in the heavens, and made them fair seeming to beholders." (16) "And We have guarded them, from evil one accursed." (17) 15-17 He has guarded the overhead canopy (skies, heavens): 21-32 In 'Phenomena of Nature and the Quran', Abdul Wadud has given detailed explanation of 'The Well-Guarded Roof' (pp.24-31). Also see 37-7, 41-12, 86-4. God has guarded everything: 11-57

Adversaries of gods and struggle for supremacy

Zoroaster emphatically rejected devas, (gods of Indo-Iranians) such as Indra, considered violent and amoral. This he saw epitomized in the destruction wrought by invaders who were threatening stability of his settled farming community. German mythology, different from Celtic in its greater emphasis on adversaries of gods, presents some what similar story of struggle for survival or supremacy, as we have noted in the conflict between Brahmans and Kshatriyas. The Quran tells that if there were more than one gods, there would have been confusion and conflict. Examine following verses:

"If there were in the heavens and the earth other gods besides Allah, there would have been confusion in both! But Glory to Allah, the Lord of the Throne. (High is He) above what they attribute to Him." 21-22 "Say: 'If there had been gods with Him, as they say, behold, they would have certainly sought out a way to the Lord of the Throne." 17-42

Also see following

"Then set up not rivals unto Allah, while you know" (well the truth). 2-22 "And indeed, it has been revealed to you (O Muhammad), as it was to those before you, If you join others as rivals with Allah, (then) surely, (all) your deeds will be in vain, and you will certainly be among the losers. Nay! But worship Allah and be among the grateful." 39-65 & 66

It is reported from Abdullah that the Prophet (Peace be upon him) said that the biggest sin in the sight of Allah is to set up rivals unto Him, though He alone created man. (Bukhari, 611, Vol-IX)

Yet it is mostly in polytheism, than in any other ideology, that all sorts of unfounded ideas have occurred.

According to Norse mythology Aesir were main gods who dwelt at a stronghold built with help of a giant who was afterwards cheated in his payment. There are references to a war ending in a truce.

The Quran clarifies that God is One Who is free of all need and want and does not need any help or assistance:

"..But Allah is free of all wants. And it is you that are needy.." 47-38

It is believed that Aesir constantly remained on watch against attack, due to persistent threat e.g., from frost giants, representing cold (climate), chaos and sterility (calamities). In Hinduism and many other religions different gods were ascribed to different phenomena like rain, wind, thunder, etc. etc, whereas the Bible and Quran clearly attribute these acts in nature to God. Phenomena of nature are created and controlled by God:

"He (Allah) merges night into day, and He merges day into night. And He has subjected the sun and the moon. Each one runs its course for a term appointed. Such is Allah, your Lord. To Him belongs all Dominion. And those whom you invoke besides Him, have not the least power." 35-13 Also see 40-61 & 62, 21-56, 17-66.

Frost giants were distinguished from fair giants, the Vanir, linked with mountains, lakes etc. It was believed that Thor (god) kept his hammer ready. There are many stories of attempts to steal god's treasures, particularly Thor's hammer, the only weapon they feared. Contrast this with the story of stick (or rod) of Solomon (Peace be upon him), and the jinns. The Aesir are supposed to hold their assembly, and create mankind, although they perish themselves. In Iceland a new religious sect, the Asatruarmenn (believers in Aesir), was officially recognized in 1973, with the aim to restore ancient rituals of pre-Christian Iceland.

Folksongs and traditional symbolism of Balts, who are Indo-European ancestors of Lithuanians, Letts and Old Prussians, show that they believed that a thunder-god, Perkunas, overcame evil spirits and established order.

Messiah or Mahdi

In Hinduism, to the list of nine past avataras has been added a tenth, Kalkin. It is believed that he will appear at the end of the present age, a messianic figure combining elements of Zoroastrian and Hindu eschatology. Compare this with Messiah, and similar concepts among Christians, Jews, and almost all religions waiting for a saviour. Reappearance of Jesus Christ (Peace be upon him) is interpreted from following verse of the Holy Quran:

"And when Allah said: 'O Isa (Jesus)! I will take you and raise you to Myself and clear you of those who disbelieve, I will make those who follow you, superior to those who disbelieve, till the Day of Resurrection. Then you will return to Me and I will judge between you in the matters in which you used to dispute." 3-55

Narrated Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him): Allah's Messenger (Peace be upon him) said:

"By Him in Whose Hand my soul is, surely, the son of Maryam will shortly descend amongst you, and will judge mankind justly by the law of the Quran, he will break the cross and kill the pigs and there will be no Jizyah (tax taken from non-Muslims). Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it, and a single prostration to Allah will be better than the whole world and whatever is in it."

(Fath Al-Bari, Vol-7, Page 302, Bukhari 657, Vol-IV) Narrated Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him): Allah's Messenger (Peace be uponhim) said: "How will you be when the son of Maryam descends amongst you and he will judge people by the law of the Quran and not by the law of the Injiil." (Fath Al-Bari, pages 304 & 305, Bukhari, 658, Vol-IV)

Lila and Maya

Advaita Vedanta is the best known school of Vedanta. 'Vedanta' means culmination of Vedas and refers to Upanishads as final and climatic portion of Vedic revelation. 'Advaita' means non-dual, i.e., monism. The system of Shankara is near monism, holding that, in the last analysis, there is only one Reality, Brahman, the divine power. Knowledge of Brahman is devoid of any multiplicity or duality. According to Advaitin Cosmology of Advaita Vedanta, there is an amazing concept that Brahman motivated by Lila, creates cosmos through the power of Maya.

What are Lila and Maya?

Lila means joyful play. Lila is considered God's motivation for periodically creating universe. It is believed that Action of Divine Power, free from all imperfection and defilement, is not motivated by any need or partiality, otherwise it would be subject to law of Karma (primary action, work or deed, and in its secondary sense the sum total of effects of actions.). So the 'act of creation' is considered as joyful spontaneity or fun.

It may be noted that science is progressively discovering many aspects of organization and purpose in the universe and that it is all managed by Super Intelligence under the unified law operating in the mega-verse. Its no fun!

The Quran and the Bible tell us that the universe was not created in vain, in play:

"Not for sport did We (Allah) create the heavens and the earth and all that is between." 21-16

The Bible also says the same: "For, thus saith the Lord, that created the heavens: God Himself that formed the earth, and made it;
He hath established it, He created not in vain,
He formed it to be inhabited, I am the Lord; and there is none else." (Isaiah 45-18)

Maya means illusion and unreal. It is believed to be a magical power of creating illusion or deceit. The term maya is also used for samkhya prakri or divine shakti (energy). In Advaita Vedanta, it refers to illusory existence of a world of multiplicity superimposed upon single non-dual reality by power of ignorance. At the same time, Maya is neither hallucination nor purely imaginary. Power of Maya is considered to be neither identical with Brahman nor completely different. Maya is considered as the power of God, which creates illusion of a differentiated universe and conceals the divine unity behind appearances. This is perhaps where Sufis get influenced and ponder into areas beyond appearance. They think that creation is virtual, not real; it is only manifestation of the Real.

Shah Wali Allah in [Hujjat Allah Al-Balgha, (The Conclusive Argument From God, p.37)] explains his understanding of 'the world of images' (Alam-al mithaal): "Be informed that many traditions of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) indicate that a non-elemental world exists in which abstract meanings are represented by quasi-bodily forms corresponding to them in quality. There, things take on their materialization in some form before they are materialized on earth. Thus when they come into existence they are the same in certain sense of sameness. Many of the things which are commonly assumed not to be 'bodily', move and descend, although people can not see them."

Shah Wali Allah in [Hujjat Allah Al-Balgha, (The Conclusive Argument From God, p.37)] explains his understanding of 'the world of images' (Alam-al mithaal): "Be informed that many traditions of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) indicate that a non-elemental world exists in which abstract meanings are represented by quasi-bodily forms corresponding to them in quality. There, things take on their materialization in some form before they are materialized on earth. Thus when they come into existence they are the same in certain sense of sameness. Many of the things which are commonly assumed not to be 'bodily', move and descend, although people can not see them."

But before and besides soft-waring and hard-waring, the Quran points towards Command and creation processes as follows:

Iraadah (Intension): "Verily, when He (Allah) intends a thing, His Command is 'Be' and it is!" 36-82 Qada: (Decision, Decree) "..When He (Allah) determines a thing (a matter), He only says to it, 'Be', and it is." 19-35 Amr: (Command): "To Him (Allah) is due the primal origin of the heavens and the earth. When He decrees (determines) a matter, He says (Commands) to it: 'Be', and it is." 2-117 Also see 3-47 and 40-68.

Besides Allah's Ever All-Powerful Command 'Kun Fayakuun' (Be, and it is.), different processes instituted or installed by Him, have been explained in the Quran, in scientific terms, e.g., Bada' (create ex-nihilo, produce something new), Fatara (create without previous model), Khalaqa (create from primordial material), Sawara (figure, picture, paint), Baara' (make, evolve, fashion).

Besides Allah's Ever All-Powerful Command 'Kun Fayakuun' (Be, and it is.), different processes instituted or installed by Him, have been explained in the Quran, in scientific terms, e.g., Bada' (create ex-nihilo, produce something new), Fatara (create without previous model), Khalaqa (create from primordial material), Sawara (figure, picture, paint), Baara' (make, evolve, fashion).

"..Verily, for all things has Allah appointed a due proportion." 65-3

"..And the Command of Allah is a decree determined." 33-38

However, before anything is created or released or any event is allowed to happen, a decree is issued permitting its happening. Till then, i.e., before appearing or happening, it remains in the software or in the written form or it exists within the programme, if we can explain in the language of the modern computer:

"No misfortune can happen on earth or in your souls, but is recorded in a Decree, before We (Allah) bring it into existence. That is truly easy for Allah." 57-22

Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Prophet (Peace be upon him) said: "When Allah created the creation, He wrote in His Book, and He wrote about Himself (that), and it is placed with Him on the Throne, 'Verily, My Mercy overcomes My Anger." (Bukhari, 501, Vol-IX)

Programmed Universe Under Complete Control

"If there were a Quran, with which the mountains were moved, or the earth were cloven asunder, or the dead were made to speak (This would be the one!). But, truly, the Command is with Allah in all things! Do not the believers know, that, had Allah willed, He could have guided all mankind?" 13-31

The miraculous Quran, is the fount of wonders of knowledge, and power (2-151), but Amr (Command) of everything is with God alone (13-31). Every ear which hears, every eye which sees, every heart which feels or every head which thinks can not (7-179) automatically receive or perceive what the Quran contains (e.g. shifa, rahmah 17-82). No doubt unto the light it guides (5-16). But for all this, the Quran requires basic qualification of being believer and God-conscious (2-2). Even for guidance it is His Will (2-142) For all events and happenings in the universe, everything is written in a programme (34-3, 36-12,). Before happening or coming into existence, everything or event again requires His permission (57-22). We may perhaps explain this to be like a click on the concerned icon of the programme, before it is made to run. Although things are programmed yet they require to be commanded or keyed before the programme goes into operation.

"No kind of calamity can occur, except by the leave of Allah.." 64-11 "Nor can a soul die, except by Allah's leave; the term being fixed as by writing.." 3-145 "But you will not, except as Allah wills. For, Allah is full of Knowledge, Wisdom." 76-30 "..With Allah rests the end of affairs." 22-41 "..Alaa lah-ul khalqu w-al amru.." 7-54 "Surely His (Allah's) is the creation and the commandment" 7-54

Image and Illusion Examined

We come back to the discussion of maya, images and illusion. In Greek (about 300 B.C.), Zeno made some adventures in philosophy. He thought that world of senses was just an illusion. He concentrated on single aspect of external world, i.e. motion, which pervades everything in the universe. If motion can be shown to be self-contradictory and hence unreal, then, everything else must assume unreal status. He formulated paradoxes, which eluded intellectual grasp of even Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Newton, Hegel, and others, till Cantor found the way out:

i. Dichotomy: There is no motion because that which moves must reach middle, before reaching end; and it must traverse a quarter before reaching middle, and so on. But how is it possible to reach an infinite number of positions in finite time?
ii. Achilles and Tortoise: Suppose Achilles is ten times faster than tortoise and the later is 1000 yards ahead of him. When Achilles covers 1000 yards, the tortoise would go 100 yards ahead. This process continues indefinitely. The tortoise will ever remain ahead of Achilles, however small that distance be.
iii. An Arrow: The point of an arrow in flight is at one and only one position at each point of time, i.e. it is at rest at each point of flight. Hence the arrow can not move. In these paradoxes, Zeno pointed out difficulties, which arise due to infinite divisibility of finite segments of time and space. There are three answers to these paradoxes: i. Time and space are not real; as Zeno thought. ii. Time and space can not be divided into instants and points, as Bergson believed.
iv. Although space and time consist of points and instants, we can not maintain that their number in any finite interval is infinite. This is what Cantor believed and gave a new concept of number to replace the usual idea of counting. (Prof. Khwaja Masud, 'Finite in search of infinite', The News, April 11, 2005)

The Quran, however, tells that: "..The life of this world is only the enjoyment of deception (a deceiving thing)." 3-185 Marmaduke Pickthall has translated this as: "..The life of this world is but comfort of illusion." 3-185 The life of this world is also described as the fleeting pastime. Everything has been created in pairs: "And of everything We (Allah) have created pairs, that you contemplate." 51-49

Pairs (azwaaj) may have many nuances than just being twins, twain, etc. Pairing or twinning, of things, whether organic or inorganic, living or not, may involve some processes, e.g., of cloning, conjoining, conjugation, conjunction, fusion, bonding, replication, multiplication, etc. Except Necessary (As-Samad, 112-2), the Only Real Self-Sustaining One (Ahad, 112-1), all contingent (creation) can exist or can be conceived only in one or the other chemical, biological, physical or mathematical formulation, elemental integration or pairing.

Ignorance, an Inability

In above discussion, concept of Ignorance has been mentioned, which is distinguished from Maya, and defined as the inability to see the true nature of things, which is regarded, in Budhist tradition, as the root of all evil. Ignorance is considered to create the seemingly separate self at the individual level.

The Quran holds out sure assurance to take man from darkness of ignorance to light leading to success here and in the Here-after:

"Allah is the Protector-Guardian of those who believe. He brings them out from darkness into light. But as for those who disbelieve, their supporters are false deities-leaders (taaghuut). They bring them out from light into darkness. Those are the dwellers of the Fire, and they will abide therein forever." 2-257

Intermediate Divinities and 'Family Relations'

Algonquin, a North American tribe, although believed in a supreme being but attributed intermediate divinities and relations: brother sun, sister moon, and mother earth. Gauls worshipped a Celtic goddess, Brigit (high one), equated with Minerva. In Ireland also the goddess was called Brigit, daughter of Dagda, (good god), who was considered to be 'father of all', a protective deity. Amaterasu-Omikami of Japanese pantheon, is believed to be heavenly-highest shining deity, popularly known as sun goddess. It is believed that it was created from her father's left eye or from a mirror held in his left hand, capable of spontaneous reproduction. According to this belief when activities shifted to the earth, she deputed her grandson to secure the eight island country. Balts believed that Zemepatis and his sister Zemyna, were master and mistress of the earth. Songs tell of Saule the Sun and her daughters.

The Quran totally rejects any idea of procreation, reproduction, relations, etc., etc. e.g., in verse 112-3.

Central to the Eleusinian (Greek) mysteria is the myth of Persephone's abduction by the underworld god Hades. Her grieving mother Demeter, controlling agriculture, caused famine. Eventually, it was arranged that Persephone would spend some months each year with Hades and some with Demeter!

Mysteria Mingling

Mysteria were Greek cults. In Roman culture, they were Graeco-oriental, in origin. They were attached to cults of certain oriental gods. They were considered accessible after initiation undergone by a person, usually supposing closer contact with divinity. Originally they were community agrarian rites, which acquired initiatory aspect and soteriological functions, promising a blissful afterlife. In Hellenistic times mystery-cults constituting devotion to god or goddess increased, in which rituals and doctrines played their part. In the Sub-continent, mainly through interaction with Hinduism, and in other parts, mainly through Graeco-Roman influence, mysteria have quite intimately mingled and mixed with Islamic, Christian, and Judaic cults, that it is difficult for a person with average knowledge of his religion to make any distinction.

Besides mysteria mingling, even in the general context and study of comparative religion, some people face difficulty of distinction, as Hassan Askari, proponent of religious inclusivism says: "Islam, as the name of the religion, Muhammad (Peace be upon him) preached, was a natural outcome of both the critique and the affirmation of Judaism and Christianity. But the very concept was a two-edged sword. By the very connotation of the word, Islam cannot be restricted to a particular historico-collective group who came to follow the Sunnah of the Prophet (Peace be upon him)." In fact, Islam is the Diin in continuity from Abraham to Muhammad (Peace be upon them), and the former was neither Jew nor Christian, but a true and straight Muslim (3-67). Inclusivism and continuity of the Diin as Islam has to be judged in the light of the verse 2-4, of which the Quran is the elaboration and Surah Al-Ikhlaas, its culmination.

Dualism

Dogon of Upper Volta in Africa believe in duality of Amma, the creator god, and Nommo, the totality of universe, existing originally within an enormous egg. They believe that there is a basic male-female twinness in the Amma-Nommo relationship. The perfect image of Nommo is considered to be a pair of twins of opposite sex.

The most striking characteristic of Fon Religion is sexual duality. Fon are the principal people of Dahomy, which became People's Republic of Benin. They take creator god as dual: Mawu and Lisa. Mawu is female symbolized by moon and night. Lisa is male, symbolized by sun and day. Mawu is believed to be assisted in creation by rainbow and serpent. Lisa is assisted by heavenly blacksmith. Ewe people, west of Fon, however, take Mawu as male.

Zoroaster is Greek form of Iranian name Zarathushtra (Zardusht). Parsis place him around 6000 BCE, but there are some differences about the exact period. He taught that Ahura Mazda was the Creator of all that is good and is alone worthy of absolute worship. He is, therefore, termed as one of earlier monotheists. His teachings, preserved in 17 hymns (Gathas, contained in Avesta), are central to liturgy of Yasna (worship). Opposed to Ahura Mazda, is placed Angra Mainyu, the opposing twin spirit; source of violence, evil and death. Zoroastrianism is, therefore, described as a dualism. But it is not spirit-flesh dualism, because both spiritual and material worlds are creation of God. Man has freedom to choose between these two powers. The righteous oppose evil, spread good, care for good creation (plants, animals and fellow men), and worship Mazda in purity. It is believed that evil will be defeated, ultimately. Life and work in this world are man's religious duty, considered worship. It is his religious duty to care both for material and spiritual aspects of his existence.

The Quran tells that evil can occur out of existence or interaction of things created (Surah 113). It is a scientific explanation that in the physical world of cause and effect, all created things can have different uses, functions and actions, and their corresponding outcomes. There are innumerable possible interactions, actions and reactions, particularly in the world of creatures with different rational levels. But none of these as evil force is opposed to or out of control of God Himself.

"Say: 'I seek refuge with the Lord of the Dawn, (1) From the mischief of created things." (2) 113-1 & 2 Surah Al-Ikhlaas (Surah 112) is a renunciation of the two-god belief that there is God of good, while evil has its separate god, who, in opposition to God, spoils His good deeds and spreads evil on earth.

Persians also believed in separate gods of light and darkness. The Quran emphatically rejects this, e.g., in Surah 113: "Say: 'I seek refuge with the Lord-Master of the Daybreak. Against mischief of created things, from mischief of darkness as it spreads, from mischief of those who practice secret arts (blow on knots, black magic). And from mischief of envious, as he practices envy." 113-1 to 5 Universal Deity in an Ambitious Empire Assyrians' idea of universal empire is found in the concept of a universal deity. The cult of sin, (moon-god) had many centres in Babylonia (Ur), Mesopotamia (Harran), Lebanon, and Palestine. In Neo-Assyrian period, it was made royal patron. At that time shamash (shams), sun-god was also widely revered. Their national god, Ashur, supplanted national god, Marduk of Babylonia. Since they conceived gods to be away from man, they represented them through symbols.

They believed that events on earth reflected recurrent groupings of heavenly constellations. It was thought that 10 deities representing fixed and moving stars took turns in ruling the universe. Even now many people believe in the signs of the Zodiac, that they rule earth and its habitants, in turns. Thus kings used to reside in the city marked to the ruling deity of that particular time-span. There were four capitals: Ashur, Nineveh, Khorsa, and Nimrud. The Quran is full of explanations that stars, constellations, galaxies, whole range of heavenly bodies, all terrestrial treasures and all forces of nature are created and controlled by God. They have been subjected to the service of mankind and so harmonized that man can harness them.

"And to Allah belong forces of the heavens and the earth; and Allah is Full of Knowledge and Wisdom." 48-4 Also see 48-7. "And there is not a thing, but its treasures are with Us. But We only send down thereof in due and ascertainable measures." 15-21 Also see 63-7. "And He has made subjected to you all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth." 45-13

Bureaucracy and Terrestrial Version of Heavenly Court

Chinese Pantheon is so exhaustive, like Roman, that it is extremely difficult to list all its gods and spirits. From Chou times (1027-402 BCE) official or state religion of China centered around abstract deity Heaven (T'ien), its counterpart Earth (Ti) and Royal Ancesters (Tsu Tsung). Popular and anthropomorphic equivalent of Heaven was Jade Emperor during T'ang dynasty (618-907 CE). He came to be regarded as ruler of heavenly court and bureaucracy during Sung dynasty (960-1126 CE). These were regarded as heavenly versions of earthly institutions, with departments run by their appropriate gods and spirits. There were ministries of fire, epidemics, sacred mountains etc. The most important were those of thunder and healing, because of current and recurrent nature of problems. Worldly state structures, institutions, departments and administration were projected with corresponding functions in the heavenly governance. Conversely, earthly administrative arrangements were considered to be heavenly extensions; in fact claiming divine support for their ruling the world.

The Quran clarifies that from celestial to terrestrial details, all affairs are ruled and monitored by God:

"He (Allah) rules (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth. In the end will (all affairs) go up to Him, on a Day, the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning." 32-5 (Translation: Abdullah Yusuf Ali) "He (Allah) manages and regulates (every) affair from the heavens to the earth; then it (affair) will go up to Him in one Day, the space whereof is a thousand years of your reckoning. (i.e. reckoning of our present world's time.)" 32-5 (Translaton: Dr Khan and Dr Al-Hilali)

Divinity Attached to Heroes

Heroes were the Greek cult-recipients. They were believed to be mortals. Yet, after death, they were made semi-gods, believed to help or harm mankind. Some heroes remained unnamed, simply referred as the heroes. Most great mythological heroes were associated with cities as founders, kings, or ancestors. At present in the West, are different dead saints associated with different cities as their patrons. A hero's power was thought to be centered on his grave. Cult was offered at his grave, involving rites, libations, prayers, votive offerings, and some times lamentations.

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet, (Peace be upon him) said:

"Do not turn my grave into a site of festivities, but send greetings to me for your greetings are raised to me wherever you might be." (Reported by Abu Daw'ud with a sound chain of authorities)

Concept of guardian spirit has influenced heroic tales and poems, in many cultures and literature, e.g., in Irish and Icelandic literature. In the belief in spirit-possession, the one-to-one relationship between spirit and his principal medium is believed to create an almost symbiotic unity to give the medium a truly prophetic character, sense of mission, and public role. Divination depends largely on claims of spirit-possession (deity or ancestral spirit is believed to speak through medium).

Examine this in the light of following Quranic assertion:

"They have taken as lords besides Allah, their rabbis and their monks and the Messiah, son of Mary, when they were bidden to worship only One God. None has the right to be worshiped except Him. He is glorified from all they ascribe as partners unto Him." 9-31

Once, while Allah's Apostle (Peace be upon him) was reciting above verse, Adi bin Hatim said: "O Allah's Apostle! They do not worship them." Allah's Apostle (Peace be upon him) said:

"They certainly do. They made legal things illegal; and illegal things legal, and they followed them; and by doing so they easily worshiped them." (At-Tirmidhi)

Ilaah means deity or god, and Alla-ha means to deify, apotheosize, idolize, make a god of, raise to the status of god (Dr Rohi Baalbaki, Al-Mawrid). Apotheosis means elevation to divine status, glorification of anything or anybody, a sublime example, a deified ideal. Apotheosizing means to idealize or to glorify (Oxford Dictionary). It means harbouring such ideas and indulging into such practices, amount to deification or acts of taking others as ilaah.

Consider present day rituals, offerings at graves, lamentations, attribution of divinity to heroes and their elevation to the status of demi-gods, etc., etc.! Some people believe in Allah, but at the same time take created beings and things like saints, righteous people, religious heroes, etc. as partners, associates and mediums with attributes denoting divinity and deism, through different dogmas and concepts. Yet by such acts, they expect to come nearer to Allah!

"Surely, the religion is for Allah Alone. And those who choose protectors other than Allah, (say): 'We only worship-obey them in order that they may bring us nearer to Allah." 39-3 "What! Do they take for intercessors others besides Allah? Say: 'Even though they have no power whatsoever, and have no intelligence?" 39-43 "Say (O Muhammad): 'Unto Allah belong all intercessions. His is the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth. And afterwards unto Him you will be brought back." 39-44 "Say (O Muhammad): 'Call upon those whom you set up besides Allah. They possess no power, not even to the weight of a particle, in the heavens or in the earth, nor have they any share in either, nor has He any helper among them." 34-22 "They worship besides Allah that which neither hurts them nor profits them and they say: 'These are our intercessors with Allah.' Say: 'Would you inform Allah of that He does not know in the heavens or in the earth? Praised is He High Exalted above all that you ascribe (unto Him)." 10-18 Allah Subhaanahuu wa ta'alaa, addresses even His beloved Apostle Muhammad (Peace be up[on him): "Say: (O Muhammad): It is not my power to cause you harm, or to bring you to the right path." 72-21 Also consider 7-87, 40-78, 10-106. The Bible states that God speaks through prophets and sages. The Quran, however, clarifies the position: "It is not fitting for a man that Allah should speak to him, except by inspiration, or from behind a veil, or by the sending of a messenger, to reveal with Allah's permission, what Allah wills. For, He is Most High, Most Wise." 42-51 Also see 2-174 and 3-77. About speaking to the chosen Messengers, the Quran further clarifies as under: "Those Messengers! We (Allah) preferred some of them to others; to some of them Allah spoke (directly), others, He raised to degrees.." 2-253 "And Messengers, We (Allah) have mentioned to you before, and Messengers, We have not mentioned to you, and to Moses Allah spoke." 4-164

Myth

The term myth is used in science, historiography, literary criticism, theology, and religionswissenschaft, with many shades of meaning. The term mythology means: i) a body of popular lore in which are embodied world-view and moral out-look of a group or a tradition, or ii) a scientific pursuit of collecting and studying such matter. (John R. Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, p.225) Myth includes happenings described as deeds of gods, heroes, or other super humanbeings. Natural or historical events attributed to causes, usually not acceptable in scientific or historical explanation, are termed as myth. In fact all such attribution is false, and myths are fictitious stories without founded explanations. Myth is closely linked to ritual. But all rites are not myths. Many myths concern origin, but they are not all aetiological, i.e., describing or explaining cause of something. Functionalism stresses role of myth, e.g. in a charter for a way of life. Structuralism investigates mythical thought as a means by which unintelligible and random experience is rendered intelligible and given pattern. In the study of religions, myths are seen as symbols conveying ideas about human existence and superhuman mystery. Much theological debate has taken place about myth in sacred scripture and significance of demythologization. Early Greek history of gods is that of cosmos. Mythos (peri Theon) concerns gods. There are myths concerning individual Greek gods, mostly describing their birth, acquisitioning of functions, and, as with heroes, actions leading to the foundation of a cult or ritual.

Persons of Eminence Turned into Idols of Worship

"The five names mentioned in verse 71-23 (Wadd, Suwa, Yaghuuth, Yauuq, and Nasr) represent some of the oldest pagan cults, before the Flood as well as after the Flood, though the names themselves are in the form in which they were worshiped by local Arab tribes." (Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Translation, p.1538, App-X.) Commentators are of the view that following idols were originally persons of eminence in very ancient times, who after their death were worshiped in the form of idols:

Wadd was worshiped by Banu Kalb in the form of man, representing heaven and manly power.

Suwa was a female deity of Banu Hamdaan, in the shape of a woman representing qualities of mutability and beauty.

Yaghuus was the deity of Banu Mazhij, in the form of a lion (or bull), representing brute strength

Ya'uuq was an idol of Banu Muraad in the form of a horse, representing swiftness.

Nasr was worshiped by Himyar in the image of an eagle, or vulture or falcon, representing quality of sharp sight and insight.

Heroization of the dead became common in Hellenistic period, which reflected a new hope for immortality. Some exceptional men were posthumously heroized

Herakles (Hercules), Asklepios, and Dioskouroi were offered cult both as heroes and gods. Juggernaut is another example. It is English pronunciation of jagan-naathaa, meaning protector of world, a hero. It is the name of a Hindu deity who is equated with Vishnu, whose temple is at Puri, in Eastern India.

Claims about Special Abilities

There are many inexplicable, so called psychic powers (psychic tricks), described as special abilities, effects and claims, which easily trap ignorant people into deception as divine powers or association with a deity. These are ascribed to holy persons and exceptional individuals, e.g., creating psychic feelings or effects including levitation (raising the body from the ground without perceptible means of support), psychokinesis (moving objects without physical contact), pre-cognition (knowledge of future events), telepathy (knowledge of others' thoughts), clairvoyance, and clairaudience (seeing and hearing beyond range of sensory perception). The last four are often classified as extrasensory perception (ESP). Budhist texts mention powers, e.g., levitation, clairaudience, invisibility, and telepathy, accessible to those skilled in meditation. Similar powers have been attributed to some Muslim, Hindu, Christian and other mystics. Opinions on these tricks and claims vary. Laboratory tests indicate only a slight incidence of ESP. Other claims are not proved. There are no verifiable mechanics or mechanism. They remain inexplicable and unknown, mainly used as trickery rather than treatment.

Divinity Attached to Selected Persons and Heavenly Beings

In different religions and in different sects within a religion, there are claims and competing claims about divinity of selected or elevated persons and other creations. In Zoroastrianism, Yazatas (Pahlavi yazad), besides Ahura Mazda, are considered worthy of worship. Among humans, they so designate only one, i.e., Zoroaster himself, because of being chosen by Ahura Mazda to receive revelation of the Good and his heroic role in the religion; nevertheless he is considered mortal. Amesha Spentas are heavenly beings, considered as males and females, similar to pagan concept. They are believed to be carrying out different divine purposes in the universe. Amesha Spentas are also worshiped. Therefore, in this sense, they can be considered yazatas, but the term refers to a class of heavenly beings comparable to angels in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They are mostly gods of ancient Iranians, as the created heavenly beings who are considered as helpers of Mazda. Some of the most popular are Mithra, Verethraghna (Bahram), yazata of victory to whom highest grades of fire temples are dedicated. An important female yazata is Anahita (Anahid). Yashts days (roz) and months (mah) are named after or dedicated to the most popular yazatas.

During Middle Ages in Europe, both Pope and emperor claimed authority through divine right as God's vice regent on earth. Similarly, some Muslim kings, since the times of Umayyads and Abbassides, based their claims on divine right claiming to be Zilullaah (shadow of God)!

Special Strengths of Mortals Mistaken for Divinity

The Hebrew Bible tells us that God exercises His Creative Power by His Spirit (Breath). About the Creative Power, the Quran tells us that He says 'Kun Fa-yakuun' (He says Be! And it is.). Furthermore, in the Quran, the word Ruuh has been used separately, which is taken in the sense of Spirit, and for putting breath into man:

"But He (Allah) fashioned him in due proportion, and breathed into him something of His Spirit. And He gave you hearing and sight and feeling. Little thanks do you give!" 32-9

For execution of the Command different forces, created by God, are commissioned by Him for accomplishment of various tasks. Mujahid said: "The angels do not descend except with truth (Amr, Law); means (they descend) either with the Message or with the punishment." (Bukhari,610, Vol-IX) The Quran informs that: Certain mortals are selected for different missions: 3-33 & 34. Some are strengthened in their missions with Spirit from Him: 58-22. Jesus (Peace be upon him) was strengthened with the Holy Spirit (Ruuh): 2-87 & 253. Family of Ibrahim (Peace be upon him) was bestowed with power and wisdom: 4-54. Some were bestowed more in certain respects, and some were given the Book: 17-55, 2-231. Saul was strengthened physically and with knowledge: 2-247. David (Peace be upon him) was given wisdom: 2-251, He was also given power over some creatures: 34-10, 21-79. Solomon (Peace be upon him) was bestowed with wisdom and knowledge: 21-79, Khizr was bestowed with mercy and knowledge from Him: 18-65. Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) was helped with heavenly forces: 9-40, and he was also strengthened with wisdom: 2-151, 231. For wisdom of Jesus (Peace be upon him) see 43-63. None of these powers were created by these selected persons of God, by themselves. These powers, strengths and favours were bestowed upon them for carrying out their missions (5-110). Some were bestowed more in certain respects than others, suitable to the requirements of their missions (17-55). It is further clarified that it is purely Allah's own Will that He may grant these blessings to His chosen people (2-269). About knowledge and spirit, the Quran explains human limitations as under: "They ask you concerning the spirit (of inspiration), Say: 'The spirit, is by Command of my Lord. And of knowledge you have been given only a little." 17-85 More limitations are pointed out at different places: Even power like wisdom (Hikmat) is not self-generated, but it is inspired: 17-39. "..It was not for any messenger to bring a Sign, except by the leave of Allah.." 40-78 "..Say: 'Certainly, Signs are in the Power of Allah.." 6-109 "Say: 'I have no power over any good or harm to myself, except as Allah Wills. If I had knowledge of the unseen, I should have multiplied all good, and no evil should have touched me. I am but a warner and a bringer of glad tidings to those who have faith." 7-188 Also see 10-49, 13-38 and 72-21.

Strengthening with Spirit (Spirituality)

According to New Testament Jesus Christ accomplished his ministry by the power of the Spirit and after his death endows his followers with it (Spirit). It is taken in personal terms for Jesus (Peace be upon him) and functions as his alter ego. Thus they believe in his continued presence, enabling them to fulfill their charge as Jesus' representatives on earth.

In contrast the Quran informs: "The similitude of Jesus before Allah is as that of Adam. He created him from dust. Then said to him: 'Be! And he was." 3-59 Jesus (Peace be upon him) was strengthened with the Holy Spirit and he showed miracles by the Permission of God.: (5-110) Allah has informed about other persons also who were strengthened by Him with His Spirit: "..For such, He (Allah) has written faith in their hearts, and strengthened them with a Spirit from Himself.." 58-22

Difference between Divinity and Spirituality

Heroes, actually mortals in all respects, who were bestowed with different kinds of strengths, depending upon nature of their missions, have been exaggerated in legends, elevated and sculptured into gods and demi-gods, in the concerned societies. It is basically here that people err, mainly because of ignorance, superstition and fear of the unknown or of those things and phenomena which they fail to understand. In fact they don't differentiate between Divinity (of the Deity; Godhead), and spirituality (Ruuhaniyat) endowed an individual. They mistake later for the former. Not only this but many wander in the wilderness of Spiritualism (belief in the soul of the dead). They take different supernatural acts of some persons as miracles or divine acts. They don't appreciate that these persons, out of the same human species, were selected (Istafaa: 3-33 & 42, 35-32, 2-130, 22-75), strengthened in different ways for the accomplishment of their assigned tasks, in their time frame, and accordingly elevated in degrees (2-47, and 122) over other men. If they were not of the same human species, then how the followers could be expected to emulate their model and accomplish human assignments as individuals and collectively as society (ummah). It has been clearly stated, e.g., that

Prophet Salih was sent to his 'brothers', Noah was sent to his 'people', some were sent to their 'communities', Ibrahim was made 'leader' of the 'mankind', and Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) was raised from amongst his community for the 'worlds'.

They were raised in stature and strength, physically and spiritually to be models for rest of the community, or society, or mankind.

Neither Naba' (information from the unknown), nor Wahii (inspiration, revelation), nor Kashaf (unveiling) nor Ma'raja (ascent) can entitle any mortal to divinity. Budhist concept of transformation from one state of being to another state, Mystic concepts like Wahdat-al Wujuud (oneness of existence), and the Hindu concept of 'god in everything' do not elevate any created thing or being to the status of divine or to the quality of divinity.

Guarding against divination and deification
In order to guard against divination and deification of the personality of the Prophet (Peace be upon him), it was clarified:

Budha-nature or body (Budha-kaya) is described in three levels: Dharma-kaya: Pure essence of Budha-hood or self-being body or the absolute aspect, the truth remaining within its own nature. Sambhoga-kaya: The bliss-body indicating awakenedness or truth, as it is perceived in the realm of celestial bliss, that is, the non-mortal realm. It is also translated as glorious body or Budha-hood as it appears in glory and splendour in the non-mortal realm. Nirmana-kaya: The form assumed by Budha-hood or the Budha-nature, when a historical manifestation occurs, in the form of a human life.

"Say (O Muhammad): I am only a man like you. It has been inspired to me that your God is One God. So whosoever expects to meet with His Lord, let him work righteousness and associate none as a partner in the worship of His Lord." 18-110

It is important to note that along with the Prophet's (Peace be upon him) assertion 'I am only a man like you', it is amply clarified, in the same verse, that righteousness with right belief that 'God is One God', is the condition for meeting Him

Mystery and Ritual Remain Misty

Mysteries, according to Orthodox Christian belief, are considered acts of God, becoming realities by the power of the Spirit. It is held that they enlighten and transform not only individual but also whole community. They are considered as effective symbols of apocatastasis, restoration of whole of creation to God. It may be relevant to examine this statement in the light of explanation of the term As-Samad in Surah Al-Ikhlaas (112-2). Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes seven principal mysteries: Baptism, chrismation, confession, eucharist, marriage, euchelaion, and ordination (sacraments). Monastic profession, blessing of water at Epiphany, grapes at festival of Transfiguration; funeral and memorial services; and artoklasia, a blessing of bread, wine and oil usually celebrated at vespers (hesperinos), are also considered as mysteries. Baptism is performed by triple immersion in the name of the trinity. Chrismation is considered as the seal of the Spirit, which corresponds to confirmation. It is given by anointing with chrism (sanctified perfumed oil), usually at baptism. Marriages are consecrated by prayers and blessings, by the crowning of bride and groom, and by their sharing a common cup of wine. Euchelaion corresponds to sacrament of extreme unction. It includes seven Epistle (Bible) and Gospel readings and seven blessings of oil which is used to anoint the sick or, on Wednesday in Holy Week, the whole congregation. The rite of the eucharist begins with a service of preparation of bread and wine, the 'Liturgy of Catechumens' includes a long litany, singing of anti-phons, hymns of the day, and the 'Kontakion', the refrain from a verse-sermon once sung at this point.The 'Liturgy of the Faithful' begins with further litanies..(J.R.Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, p. 223)

Rituals Performed in Processions

Murti, or material form of Jagan-naathaa (Juggernaut) is taken in procession in an annual festival. It would be interesting to analyze many such processions being taken out today in many religions, in which many imitations, images, replicas, signs, etc., etc., are carried with reverence. They also display power and extent of influence of organizers, sometimes in competition, both inter-sectarian and intra-sectarian They are so innumerous that it is not possible to mention even major ones briefly. Consider following:

Mahmil, a covered litter, as an emblem of royalty, borne on a camel, was sent to Makkah, from Cairo and Damascus, at the time of pilgrimage. The word mahmil or mahmal signifies that by which something is supported. "It is said that Sultan Az-Zahir Beybars, King of Egypt, was the first who sent a mahmal, with the caravan of pilgrimage to Makkah in A.D. 1272, but that it had its origin a few years before his accession to the throne, under the following circumstances: Shagru d'Durr, a beautiful Turkish female slave, who became the favourite wife of Sultan as-Salih Najmu 'd-din,and who on the death of his son (with whom terminated the dynasty of Aiyub) caused herself to be acknowledged Queen of Egypt, performed the hajj in a magnificent litter borne by a camel. And for successive years her empty litter was sent yearly to Makkah, as an emblem of state. After her death, a similar litter was sent each year.." Sa'ud, having carried out his mission, conveyed following to the Sultan of Turkey: "Sa'ud to Salim - I entered Makkah on the fourth day of Muharram in the 1218th year of the Hijrah.I destroyed all things that were idolatrously worshipped.I desire that you will give orders to the rulers of Damascus and Cairo not to come to the sacred city with the Mahmal and with trumpets and drums." He "prohibited the mahmal as an object of vain pomp.." (Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, pp. 306-307, 660)

Roman Di Deaeque and Pagan Cults

Ancient Roman Religion adopted elements of worship of gods from Indo-Europeans. However, the earliest religion, which we know is that of the 6th century BCE monarchic period (754-509 BCE), when native tradition underwent modification through contacts with Etruscans and with Greeks from South Italy. The Republican period (509-31 BCE) collected wide and ever-increasing range of deities (di deaeque). Their worship was maintained by state, clans, families, and groups, under supervision of priests (sacerdotes). With elaborate system of rituals and rules, their conceived gods influenced all aspects of life. During later republican period: i) cults emerged, on voluntary basis, with their own authority structure and offering personal religious experience; and ii) ambitious competing aristocratic leaders claiming special divine patronage (felicitas) and honours tending towards deification. "In creating the new regime of the empire, Augustus (31 BCE), under the guise of reviving ancient forgotten cults, transformed many institutions to the service of the new monarchy, while the first steps were taken towards the establishment of emperor-worship." Emperor-cult in all provinces and Roman gods in the Latin-speaking provinces characterized the empire. Paganism continued in later period also. Decline of dedications and temple-building in 3rd century CE is part of transformation of city life rather than religious change. Opposition from Christianity, accelerated internal deterioration, leading to eventual decline.

Among Romans, essential ritual for establishing contact between man and gods, was sacrifice of animals, mostly cattle, sheep and pigs. Rites included preparation, prayer to the recipient, and immolation of the victim, (carried out by lower-class specialists, victimarii, on the officiant's behalf). Then, entrails (extra) were assessed by haruspices, through whom, gods were believed to accept or reject sacrifice. The victim was cooked and finally extra returned to god; rest (profanum) being consumed by human participants. If victim was rejected, whole procedure was repeated until signs of acceptability of sacrifice were found (perlitatio). In triumph, victorious general was accompanied by his prisoners and victims, for sacrifice to Jupiter, in a procession of his army.

The Quran on the contrary, prescribes piety and righteousness as standards for acceptability of sacrifice:

"It is not their meat, nor their blood, that reaches Allah.. It is your piety that reaches Him. He has thus made them (animals) subject to you, that you may glorify Allah for His guidance to you. And proclaim the good news to all who do right." 22-37 "Recite to them the truth of the story of the two sons of Adam. Behold! They each presented a sacrifice (to Allah). It was accepted from one, but not from the other. Said the latter: 'Be sure I will slay you.' 'Surely', said the former: 'Allah does accept of the sacrifice of those who are righteous." 5-27