Origin of Religion

    Study of origin of religion deals with:
(i) manner in which religious beliefs and practices originated,
(ii) sources of religion in experience, and
(iii) emergence or development of an individual or group.

These are important for study of sciences of religion. Factors which cause, promote or preserve religious credence or commitment need to be clearly distinguished from truth of specific beliefs or efficacy of actual practices. History of man is full of instances where he has attempted to devise a socio-political system, attempting to satisfy human needs, reflecting basic human rights. Mere claim that religion is an illusion, does not necessarily prove that all religion is illusory. (John R. Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, p.241)

Religious Beliefs and Their Interpretations

Comparative study of religions began in ancient Greece, as early as Xenophanes (late 6th century BCE). Growth of vast information, from travelers, traders, missionaries, etc., stimulated attempts to order and organize it. Comparative religion became an established title for describing and classifying similarities and differences of religions. To avoid bias and dogmatism, regarding truth or superiority of one religion, history of religion needs to be specific. More general studies belong to typology (structural or historical) and phenomenology of religion. From these emerge, on the one side, the sciences of religion and, on the other, philosophy of religion and theology. It is realized that if meaning of religion is to be understood, its place as a significant aspect of culture has to be appreciated, and its varied structures and multiple functions need to be understood. This is possible only through polymethodic approach, combining rigour with sensitivity of many disciplines in academic study. (J.R.Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, pp.270-271)

Typology is a method of :

(i) interpretation of sacred literature, in which characters or events from earlier period (e.g. Hebrew scriptures) are seen as prefiguring or foreshadowing those occurring or described later, e.g. the Messiah or Jesus Christ in the New Testament,

(ii) analysis and classification of religions according to type, of which Heinrich Frick (1893-1952) was a pioneer. Founded religions are contrasted with developed religions and grouped as tribal (primal), national, world religions; or as prophetic and mystical. These are ideal types in the sense as Max Weber (1864-1920) used this term.

Hermeneutics concerns understanding and interpreting Biblical, philosophical, and literary texts. Responsible interpreters are conscious to determine rules for valid exegesis so that alien meanings are avoided in the text. Development of historical consciousness, since 18th century, rational, and more recently scientific interpretation, have added new dimensions to it. In the context of historical consciousness, it is debated whether a person of one culture can grasp original meaning of the text produced in a different culture. It is argued that an interpreter can re-experience mental processes of the author and apprehend meaning of his text, because both author and interpreter share common humanity. But it is not possible to claim such sharing or any commonality with the Word, the author of which is God Himself. One may, however, come somewhat closer in claiming this about interpretation of some traditions, other than those in the original phrophetic word. Interpreting the text in the cultural setting of that time is a very difficult, sensitive and complex issue. Hermeneutic principle has also been questioned on the ground that it may fail to reflect adequately fundamental differences of awareness of different cultures. In case of the Quran a fundamental principle was laid down by the Prophet himself (Peace be upon him), that the language of the Quran was to be basically understood in the Arabic dialect of the Quraish. Yet space is also available for different readings, other dialects, linguistic and cultural interpretations of that time, historical background of the revelation, explanations provided by the Prophet himself (Peace be upon him), and his practices in the implementation of instructions and in the applications by chains of Companions, Successors of Companions and Followers of Successors of Companions, who handed down these traditions.

Some people, however, argue that understanding is an art. It can not be produced simply by observing rules, because of the so called 'hermeneutical circle', i.e., the recognition that meaning of a text as a whole and meanings of each of its parts are reciprocally related since apprehension of one depends on apprehension of the other. The Quran combines both these principles, without exclusion of the other. Along with all the background information, listed above, the Quran inculcates, observation, reflection deliberation and reasoning. The Quran goes many steps further, leaving room for further understanding with advancement and unfolding of information, and more data becoming available, with time. It is also supported by different kinds of guidance (hidaayah), imbued (91-8) originally and inherently, or flashed externally (5-31) or inspired (Wahii), and special guidance to those who return, approach and submit sincerely, etc. etc. In translation and interpretation of the Quran, it is believed that not only word for word translation is not possible, but also it is extremely difficult to translate and interpret it fully to another cultural setting. Besides linguistic limitations, available data and information are also determining factors for correct and clear interpretation of revealed facts and phenomena. In Surah Ikhlaas concepts about Allah, Huwa, Ahad and As-Samad, are not easy to explain and make fully comprehendable in different settings and mental levels of peoples and cultures.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan discussed principles of exegesis of the Qur'an when discoveries of natural sciences were being rejected on the pretext of being opposed to the Quran. He argued for the Word of God to be understood in terms of the Work of God; its meaning to be reinterpreted in the light of ever growing human knowledge and latest discoveries of science. He applied the same principle of exegesis of the Qur'an in matters concerning social affairs.

The Diin (The Law)

Sidrah Unis says: "Revelation consists of: Communications made by Gabriel, under the direction of God, to the Prophet, either in the very words of God or by hints; such knowledge as occurred in the mind of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) through inspiration from God; and opinion of the Prophet, embodied in the form of ratiocination, delivered from time to time on issues that happened to be raised before him.

"Your companion errs not, nor does he deviate. Nor does he speak out of desire. It is naught but revelation that is revealed, One Mighty in Power has taught him, the Lord of Strength. So he attained perfection" 53- 2 to 6.

In view of above an extreme caution was taken in recording the word and the deed of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Yet since these were actually compiled at a later stage, an elaborate science of Hadiith has been developed to satisfy as to origin and authority of each.

Sidra goes on to dsicuss: "The two Arabic terms Hadiith and Sunnah are generally taken to be synonymous, but there is a vast difference between the two. Hadiith literally means tale or narrative; whereas, Sunnah literally means trodden path or busy path. Hadiith refers to a tradition or story of the Prophet, and Sunnah signifies the law deduced from it. In other words, Sunnah, with reference to Islamic law, denotes a rule derived from the sayings or conduct of the Prophet as narrated in a Hadiith. (Sidrah Unis, Significance of Sunnah Dawn, June 3, 2005) Besides the two basic sources of Islamic Law, the Quran and the Hadiith, there are two more sources:

1. Ijma: (jamaa'at: gathering together): consensus on basis of shuura (necessary mutual consultations),.

It is based on a tradition of the Prophet (Peace be upon him): "My community will never agree upon an error."


Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) related that Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said

: "Convey to other persons none of my words, except those you know of a surety. Verily, he who represents my words wrongly shall find a place for himself in the fire."

Some hold that Ijma is the consensus of the Companions. Others hold that it is consensus of Muslim jurists of a particular age.

2. Qiyas: analogical deductions from the Quran, Hadiith and Ijma; particular deduction by a particular Companion. Qiyas is based on three considerations: Istehsan; equitable point of view, Isteslah; public good, and Istedlal; customs, usages and laws of former revealed religions, their principles of justice, equity and good conscience.

Fiqh is the technical term for science of Islamic law. It covers all human behaviour, from religious cult to personal, criminal, constitutional law, etc.

Shari'ah embodies basic sources of Islamic Law and other relevant sources of science of Islamic law, within parameters of the former. Shari'ah as a rule of personal conduct covers both public and private practices. It represents an ideal and a broad conceptualization of religious life in Islam. The Quran and the example of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) elaborate this ideal. After the demise of the Prophet (Peace be upon him), new challenges and issues arose in public and private life., as the new religion spread within and outside Arabia. Therefore, Muslim scholars undertook elaboration of this religious obligation in a systematic manner. Over the course of two centuries, they constructed a comprehensive fiqh (jurisprudence, literally, understanding), through usuul-al fiqh (method of legal reasoning). This was based on the rules in the Quran and the earliest recollection of the life of the Prophet (Peace be upon him), but it was also the product of their own judicial reasoning. After 8th century, different schools of religious law (madhaahib), came up, e.g., Hanafi, Maaliki, Shaafi'i, Hanbali, named after their founders. ".The scholars of Kufa, Syria and Medina each developed different schools of jurisprudence.all agreed on the Quran and the Prophet (Peace be upon him) as the primary sources of values, but disagreed on the secondary sources. In such matters, the Medina school was known for championing the way of the city of the Prophet (Peace be upon him); Kufa developed systematic analogical reasoning; while Syrian views were closely related to the position of the Umayyad state. Towards the end of the Umayyad power, moreover, the legal schools also became part of an ideological critique of the state.Later, these attempts were formally brought together into a comprehensive system by Muhammad b. Idris al-Shaafi'I (born in Syria, died in Egypt 820)." (Abdulkader Tayob, Islam, A Short Introduction, pp.37-38). Abu Hanifa became the reputed founder of the Kufan legal school, which developed raay' (individual opinion) as an important aspect of juridical reasoning. Malik b. Anas (d.795) argued for the eminence of the Prophet (Peace be upon him)'s city in legal decision-making. "In fact, the differences between the schools are slight. The Shi'is have their own body of law, again not generally different from that of the Sunnis." (John R. Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, p. 125) But all this has remained not only static but divisive, due to groupism, sectarianism and complete abandonment of ijtihaad (diligent interpretative judgement).and ijma. Recently some legal reformers have selected items from different schools and combined them for modern legal process.

"Among Shah Waliullah's main contributions is the fact that he broke the shackles of taqleed (compulsory adherence to any one of the four main schools of Islamic jurisprudence), which has been the single biggest factor in the intellectual stagnation of the Muslim thought.. Shah Waliullah's main point of departure was the attempt to work out the social basis underlying the Qur'anic injunctions. The Shariah, he pointed out, only aims at the reform of society. But, no Shariah takes place in a vacuum.. Iqbal supported this view.

"About the third source of Muslim Law, Moulvi Chiragh notes that none of the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence has claimed any finality for their conclusions. They never insisted that their opinions or analogical deductions be compulsorily followed by their contemporaries, not to speak of the future generations. The trouble with the traditionalists, as Khalifa Abdul Hakim sees it, had been that they confused the permanent ideal with the temporary regulations.

As a result, the Islamic law lies buried beneath the heap of retrograde legalism, its spirit smothered by centuries of obscurantism, clericalism and despotism." (Prof Khwaja Masud, Before and after Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, The News, 18. 10. 2004)

Islamic Law and Western Legal systems

Law may be defined as a set of rules governing human conduct, individual and collective, in a society or state. Western concept of law presupposes a state and its authority. According to it, state makes laws under its constitution, and authorizes its institutions to make rules under their umbrella; these rules are enforced on the basis of sanctions. Purposes of law may vary from welfare of people to interests of the regime itself. But origin, nature, and scope of Islamic legal system is quite different. It is the body of rules of conduct revealed by God. Individuals and groups are to lead their lives accordingly.

"Compared to the western concept of law, the features of Islamic law, in brief, are:

1. It has not been decreed by any earthly ruler, but revealed by God.
2. It originates from Divine Revelation, not custom or tradition.
3. It remains valid, whether a state recognizes it or not.
4. Where a state does not recognize it, Islam ensures its observance by the Muslims living in its territory through cultivation of religious consciousness in the human soul and awakening of awareness through moral education. Thus, Islamic law applies to the conscience of a Muslim even if he is living in a non-Muslim state.
5. It addresses every aspect of human life, not just the legal system.
6. Its purpose is to ensure welfare of man, individually and collectively. It does not aim at glorification of the lawgiver, as God is above all wants and weaknesses.
7. The means by which compliance with Islamic law is secured are of a wider character than the sanctions in the western legal systems.
8. In a Muslim state, the community through a chosen representative or a group of representatives administers it.
9. When non-Muslims are living in a Muslim state, only those parts of Islamic law apply to them that are not specifically identified with the tenets of Islam."
10. (Sidrah Unis, Islamic law: a Divine gift, Dawn, 5th August, 2005)

Responsibilities for enforcement are prescribed for individuals, society, state, government, etc. separately for each and collectively, supported by system of spiritual rewards and punishments.

Modernist movements

Ideologically, Islamic modernist movements are traced to Mutazila, dating back to third Islamic century. They accepted the Qur'an and the Sunnah and made ta'weel (interpretation of the Qur'an). They believed that 'aql (intelligence) takes precedence over naql (following). However, in Europe, the modernist movement originated in middle-ages. When scientific method became popular, in Spain. It was thought that what the church was teaching was not true. This led to a slow revolt. The basic view of modernism (in religion) was taken that religion should change according to circumstances, and that it was not fixed. There is no such thing as absolute truth. The Jewish and Christian response in Europe asserted that religion was still relevant for people. They made innovations to keep people interested in religion, e.g., singing in church, introduced only in the 1900's. They tried to say that the divine and the human is mixed in the Bible and that true statements are not out of date. This also meant that religion is improving over time and there is no absolute truth in the Bible. This was the time when some Muslims were looking towards Europe. This led to three choices for those Muslims: accept the West; reject the West; or mix the two (reform Islam?). (Jamaal al-Din Zarabozo, Modernism in Islam,The News, March 4, 2005, Based on "Modernism in Islam" lecture series by Sh. Zarabozo)

Are There Sciences Known as 'Islamic'?

When Muslim scientists and scholars cultivated natural sciences from 9th century CE, they were already in possession of scientific data in the Quran, scientific attitude and frame of mind, inculcated through the Quran. Theophany in the Quran makes scientific spirit an integral part of God consciousness. It consciously affirms the truth that God is One in His Essence and Attributes (Most Beautiful Best Names). It flows from this central truth that a scientist or a scholar, who is a believer also, accepts scientific reality of cosmic unity, through the Unity (Tauhiid) of God. The Quran is emphatic in maintaining that all things in the universe are integrated in the web of cosmic unity through a unified law governing them. It emphatically explains that cosmic unity is an evident proof of Divine Unity. Cosmos and all creation constitute a unity manifesting the oneness of its source and origin, religiously called God. Muslim religious consciousness is essentially the belief in the Unity of God (Tawhiid). Therefore spirit of a believer scientist and scholar is ingrained with consciousness of Tawhiid. It is because of this that Muslim scholars refer their scientific works as Islamic not just because they have been developed by Muslims. In fact many more non-Muslims have made important contributions to sciences. But scientific works of the former are designated as 'Islamic' because, conceptually speaking, they are organically related to the fundamental principle of Tawhiid. It is in obvious contrast to and contradicts polytheist proposals about different gods for different phenomena of nature.

Megaverse is made up of many levels of reality, including physical and metaphysical, harmonized into one basic system:

"See you not, how Allah has created the seven heavens, one above another." 71-15 Also see 67-3

"So He (Allah) completed them as seven firmaments, in two days, and

He assigned to each heaven its duty and command (specific law relevant to each plane of existence). And We adorned the lower heaven, with lights and with guard.

Such is the decree (law) of the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge." 41-12

Therefore, Tawhiid is the basis and the most fundamental principle underlying monotheism. In this regard exception is not acceptable and there is no forgiveness for shirk (polytheism), because it denies the greatest obvious reality of existence, e.g., in the unity of living systems of an organism and individual, unity of life, and unity of cosmos. The Quran points out that even non-believers and disbelievers obey His physical laws of the world in which they live. Fearing and being careful to avoid Shirk (polytheism) constitute a constant factor in conscious and responsible behaviour of a believer:

"Verily, Allah forgives not that a partner be ascribed unto Him. He forgives all other sins to whom He wishes, and whosoever ascribes partners to Allah, has indeed invented a tremendous sin." 4-48 Also study carefully verses: 4-116 and 14-35. "..If you ascribe partners to Allah, all your deeds will be in vain, and definitely you will be one of the losers." 39-65 "But if they set up aught (besides Him), all they did would be vain." 6-88

Greek philosophy (Philosophia), in seeking ultimate explanation of cosmos, like philosophy of religion, constructs physical and metaphysical counterparts to religious beliefs, e.g. Milsesians, 6th century BCE and Plato 428-348 BCE. Some thinkers (e.g. Heraclitus, 500 BCE) associated natural or metaphysical entities with traditional divinities. Associating physical entities and beings with divinity, attaching divinity to such things and beings and deification of humanbeings and animals have prevailed with varying degrees in human history. F.C. Happold, in 'Mysticism, A Study and an Anthology', (pp.62-63), while discussing sort of man's knowledge of God, in mystic sense, says:

"God can only fully be known by becoming God," and in support he quotes from the greatest champion of Catholic orthodoxy St Athanasius:

"God was made man, in order that man might be made God." Here a point arises, then, why only one man could be made God? Why not more? If more than one man could become Gods, then there should also be more than one Jesus, more than one Uzayr, and so on. In that case it denies its own and very basic concept of trinity, or the only trio, as the only possible fixed number. Logically, it would not remain confined or limited to the number three only. Then, according to this Athanasian concept, it is bound to proliferate into polytheism, as vast as any number of men could be! By the way, why it should remain restricted to men only particularly in the gender conscious enlightened societies, struggling for equal rights and empowerment of women? It should be equally open to women also. Debate may not conclude here. What about other species or classes of creations and creatures? Those who believe in deification of animals, could also argue, inter alia, on the basis of animal rights! In fact, multi-dimensional debate has raged since olden times.

Stoicism (300 BCE to 260 CE) defended traditional beliefs, reinterpreting gods as natural phenomena. Later Stoicism achieved synthesis with popular beliefs, e.g., astrology. Philosophical criticism of traditional religion began with Xenophanes (570-470 BCE), followed by Heraclitus. Another critical wave began in mid 5th century (Sophists, Democritos, 460 BCE) In earlier Hellenistic times such criticisms are common (e.g. the Epicureans, Cynics, and Sceptics). (J.R.Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, p.252)

Religion and Science

There are questions that have been agitating minds of scholars since long, which do not receive definite answers from science, though it has been successfully peeling off one layer after another of mystery in which they are engulfed. On the other hand, theology gives answers from established facts (muhkamaat, that are too definite and sometimes affect credulity to the limit) to allegories (mutashaabihaat, that cause modern mind to view them with suspicion:

"He (Allah) it is Who has sent down to you the Book. In it are verses (Aayaat: Signs) basic (fundamental, of established meaning). They are the foundation of the book, others are not of well-established meaning. But those in whose hearts is perversity follow the part thereof that is not of well-established meaning, seeking discord, and searching for its hidden meaning. But no one knows its true meanings, except Allah. And those who are firmly grounded in knowledge say: 'We believe in the Book. The whole of it is from our Lord.'

And none will grasp the Message, except men of understanding." 3-7

In fact above verse highlights human limitations of understanding, knowledge, philosophy, science, and so on.

Philosophy of Religion is the method of critical reflection upon religious statements, knowledge, belief and thought in relation to other modes of thought. Philosophy of religion is a way of thinking about conviction, rather than expression, and defence of convictions. In the West, a philosopher of religion is one who applies logical and analytical techniques in studying nature, meaning of religious word and belief. It deals with questions of traditional metaphysics, e.g., truth or reality.

But philosophy is related to advancement of human knowledge, influenced by existing issues and limited by the time frame. To study phenomena and problems and to find answers to them, relative to advancement of human knowledge and understanding, is the raison d'etre of philosophy.

"Philosophy is the intellectual quintessence of its time. It is the animated soul of the world's culture. Any philosophy, even though in a form of abstract constructions, has always reflected the frame of mind, ideals and values of a society.

"A weltanshanung has a very complicated multi-layer structure of its time. Hegel calls it zeitgeist (spirit of the age). The natural and social sciences give a set of ideas about various aspects of the objective world. Literature and art also reflect them in one way or another. It is philosophy that, through a synthetic process, elaborates a general and universal conception of the world." (Prof Khwaja Masud, 'Ijtihad' is need of the hour, The News 22nd November, 2004)

It is one of the functions of philosophy to build a rational world-view that absorbs the quintessence of the time. It interprets the world, but its real task is how to change the world for the better, from time to time. Therefore, philosophy of any age has not been able to provide a universal set of rules for all social behaviour for all times. On the contrary some religions do make such claims, particularly divine religion revealed continually, with Islam claiming its finality:

"..This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam, as your religion." 5-3

Falsafa is the Islamic term for philosophy. Islam has always questioned compatibility and utility of western philosophy, viewing it as inimical to faith and conducive to heresy and disbelief. Greek translations, e.g., of Plato, Aristotle, Neoplatonism, etc., were mainly cultivated by scholars from trends and sects considered outside Sunnah or too radical, such as Mutazalites. Scope of debate and dialects kept on expanding. In philosophical questions like difference in created beings, essence and existence, God's knowledge of particulars, materialness or spiritualness of punishment and reward in the next life, and whether creation was ex nihilo, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and others, were responded by scholars of Kalam. Al-Ghazali's refutation of philosophy was in turn combated by Ibn Rushd. (Jhon R. Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, p.122)

Phenomenology of Religion is the orderly study of religious phenomena, that which appears, setting aside assumptions about truth or falsity of specific beliefs and reality of putative objects of religious experience. As a method of description and understanding, not of explaining, with suspension of judgement, in order that phenomena may speak for themselves. This has philosophical basis in the works of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) and his followers. But other leading phenomenologists of religion, e.g. W.B.Kristensen, 1867-1953, G. van der Leeuw, 1890-1950, M.Eliade, b.1907, developed admitted meaning of religious actions and ideas of those who practice or hold them. By emphatic appreciation, feeling-into their inner perspective, which is some what intuitive, they described what is essential, i.e. their meaning rather than what causes them. It avoids naturalistic reduction, to which sciences of religion are prone, as well as assumptions and evaluations of theology. Phenomenology includes classification of religious ideas, actions, and symbols. It is differentiated from typology and religionswissenschaft by its methods and aims. Such demarcations and the extent to which phenomenology is, or ought to be objective are debatable. The terms phenomenology and objectivity lack precision. Therefore they should be applied with caution. (Jhon .R.Hinnells, Dictionary of Religions, pp.251-252)

Sciences of Religion, in the West, study man and his religiousness, i.e, religious aspects of human behaviour, society and culture, using methods which differ from those of religionswissenschaft and theology:

(a) Psychology of religion deals with religious experience; covering conversion, prayer, mysticism, states of mind, etc. Depth psychology deals with Freudian emphasis on religion as illusory. It also deals with Jungian focus on significance of dreams, fantasies, myths, and their symbols. Social psychology overlaps sociology.

(b) In Sociology, functionalism (religion as a factor in self-awareness and stability of society) is highlighted by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). A broader comparative approach to understanding (verstehen) religions and their development is presented by Max Weber (1864-1920). It discusses erosion of religion in society (secularization), its survival in developed societies, origin and role of religious groups, etc. Here it overlaps anthropology. Recently more interest is generated in study of extremism and fundamentalist approaches and their causes.

(c) Traditionally, anthropology is applied to small-scale, non-literate, or primal society. The term primal is used for religious ways, classified as animist, in order to avoid apparently biased term primitive. Methods of science of man are proving increasingly useful in analysis of complex cultures of civilized people. Theories of origin of religion, were dominated by evolutionary approach in earlier anthropology (late 19th and early 20th century). Later anthropologists have produced studies of religious aspects of cultures, nature and functions of symbol systems, myth and ritual.

It would, thus, be seen that many branches and sub-branches of sciences of religion have been developed in the West.

Projection Theories of Religion refer to arguments in Western thought which claim that God is not a reality, independent of man, on whom the world depends for its continued existence (please see discussion on Huwa and As-Samad):

" They consider it as a product of human mind, appropriate to a mental construction, and an unconscious invention. " David Hume (1711-76) following Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) suggested in The Natural History of Religion (1757) that belief in gods arose when primitive man personified unknown forces which he thought were controlling nature and offered worship to them in an attempt to placate them. " L.A. Feuerbach (1804-72) argued that God is an illusory reality presenting qualities, regarded ideal by man. His theory had an important influence on hostile views of religion presented by Karl Marx (1818-83) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). " Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) thought that religion provided a mythological representation of social structures, affirming thereby values and rules of society in a quasi-objective form. " Sigmund Freud (1856-1919) treated religion as an illusion and suggested that idea of God is basically a magnified version of image of human father, in an infantile desire for protection against harsher aspects of world. He seems to be definitely influenced by the concept of Father in Christian society.

Tripartite Ideology represents theory of Georges Dumezil and his followers that earliest Indo-Europeans had a hierarchically ordered tripartite (threefold) society paralleled in myths and epics of gods. In both, society and myth, the first or priestly class, was magico-religious, concerned with justice and sovereignty. The second, that of warriors, concerned with physical prowess or force; and the third was that of productive workers. These are still preserved in its daughter cultures, e.g., Greece, India, Iran, Rome, and Scandinavia. His critics consider that he forced the evidence, e.g., in categorization of deities.

Class structures (castes) are found in different religions, the most prominent and hard being in Hinduism, with four classes, or broad divisions, (varna). Highest are Brahmans; then Kshatriya (warriors); and then Vaishya (merchants). These three constitute the 'twice-born' (dvija) classes. Below these are shudras (workers, or serfs), who suffer many social disadvantages. Some attribute this difference between shudras and twice-born classes mainly to colour. The latter are considered as descendents of lighter-skinned Aryan (Indo-European) immigrants into India.

According to a hymn of Rig-veda, 'Purushasukta', four classes came with creation of world: a primeval called Purusha (Man) was sacrificed, and from his mouth Brahman class was created, from his arms Kshatriyas, from his thighs Vaishyas, and from his feet Shudras. This idealistic doctrine of Brahmans, that all humanity is divided into four classes, is considered purely spiritual. In this way Caste System is part of Hindu religion.

Caste is considered a religious character, because: i) priesthood is prerogative of Brahmans, ii) superiority of Brahman to all others is taken as religiously sanctioned in Vedas, iii) Theory of Karma, (law of moral cause and effect) explains as to why men are born high or low, and iv) Distinction between inclean and clean castes (polluting and those not), is a religious conception.

In India jati is a social status inherited at birth, whether high or low. Jati is identifiable with particular occupation, although not all follow their traditional occupation groups, e.g, jati of scavengers, weavers, potters, iron workers, leather workers, etc, etc. All these jatis are regarded low. Some of them are regarded, by high-caste Hindus, ritually polluting. Jati varies, not only from region to region, but also from village to village. Brahmans do not always constitute a dominant jati, but where some other jati is dominant, its attitudes and values tend to predominate, rather than those of Brahmans.

The title of Harijan, (children of Hari, alternate name for Krishna: saviour), was applied by Mahatma Gandhi to untouchables. The name has, however, another connotation: children of temple- prostitutes. Since their paternity is not known, they are ascribed to the deity of the temple, referring to Hari. Therefore, many would prefer the title untouchables, as it highlights the social stigma under which they suffer as poor and low-class people. They are regarded as polluting, and even their shadow on Dvija (twice born), is thought to defile. An ancient name for this class is Candala; worst or wild people.

Scholasticism is the Christian theological method used to draw out implications of Revealed Truths expressed by the Scriptures and the Fathers of the church, to establish their mutual consistency and reconcile apparent contradictions between them and natural understanding, as they were recorded subsequently at a distant point of time.. Although basic principles of primary authority of revealed truth and use of logic were already enunciated, this method flourished, specially in 12th and 13th centuries with development of dialectical methods of reasoning, use of subtle distinctions, and incorporation of Aristotelian thought. Among foremost scholastics are Albert the Great (1200-1280), Aquinas, Bonaventura (1221-74), and Duns Scotus (1264-1308). One basic dispute within medieval scholasticism was between realists and nominalists. Realists, (William of Champeaux, 1070-1121) maintained that concepts (universals) have a mode of existence of their own, and nominalists [(Abelard, 1079-1142), and William of Occam, 1300 to 1349)] maintained that only actual individuals exist and that universals are abstractions.


Scientism has no fixed meaning. In Marxism it refers to an ideology shared by scientists. Others refer to mean Positivism or Scientific Humanism. It is involved even in matters which are apparently outside its province. It is considered as a panacea.

Dianetics is a form of psychotherapy. In 1950, L. Ron Hubbard, thought that his research was taking him from mind to spirit. Church of Scientology, incorporated more religiously oriented philosophy and life-style, specially for more advanced and committed members. Courses were developed to free individuals from unnecessary and harmful accretions of their present and past and thus release essential, spiritual self, the Thetan. In 1968 the British government imposed restrictions to study or work for Scientology. There is a lot of criticism of practices of Scientology, from governments and anti-cult movement.

Rationalism emphasizes reason as opposed to experience (contrasted with empiricism) and emotions. It is in the latter sense that Humanists are called rationalists. They maintain that religion has no basis in reason.

Animism advocates that religion has origin in belief in spirits, and it is believed to deal with spiritual things. It is also a loose designation for religion in any tribal culture. It is believed that spirits are active in environment.

Spirit is a general term for any super-human being (usually invisible). It is difficult to define spirit. It is derived, like its equivalents in many languages, from words for breath, wind, invisible, powerful and life-giving. It denotes some form of being, which has no distinctively material properties. It also connotes life, consciousness and self-activity. Some cultures accept existence of spirits, as personals. Some people think that individual human may possess one or more spirits, separable physically. In Zoroastrianism, Fravashi (man's eternal spirit) remains in heaven even during his life on earth. According to myth of creation (Bundahishn), when Ahura Mazda created material world, the fravashis of all men were asked whether they chose to assume material form, and take part in the battle with evil, or to remain in spiritual form and stand away from it. They collectively chose to assume the material form. The basic doctrine of free will in Zoroastrianism is at its highest in this myth, asserting that men have chosen to live in the material world.

The Quran presents following account:

"We (Allah) indeed offered the Trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they refused to undertake it, being afraid thereof. But man undertook it. He was indeed unjust and foolish." 33-72 (Translation: Abdullah Yusuf Ali; also see his Footnotes Nos. 3777 to 3782 in his Commentary.)

"We offered the Trust to the heavens, to the earth and to the mountains, but they refused to bear it, and were afraid of it. Man undertook to bear it, but he has proved unjust and foolish." 33-72 (Translation: Dar Al-Choura, Lebanon)

[Also see Muhammad Asad's Translation and Footnotes Nos. 87 and 88 in his Commentary, where he interpets it as "Trust (of reason and volition)"].

Fravashis are believed to survive bodily death, hence made objects of cult (e.g. in Ancestor-worship). Sometimes, events in physical environment or in human consciousness are attributed to spirits. Superior and well characterized spirits are designated as gods.

Spirit-possession is an important element in some African religions. Many cults 'have', at their ritual center, a medium through whom deity or ancestral spirit is believed to speak. More established cults, formalize possession. It is even assumed predictable and confirmatory of the given order. In new and socially marginal cults possession 'appears' more violent, revelatory, and innovating. Possession is distinct from mediumship, being a disorder rather than a public role, but it easily pretends it.

Soul is usually translated as spirit. It may be interesting to know some concepts about it, in brief.

Most Amerindian tribes believe in existence of two souls in man, free soul and life or breath soul. The former identified with personality, is believed to be able to leave body during dream or vision. Icelandic literature shows that they believed that Fylgia, a shape, accompanies man in his life. It resembles external soul in animal form, visible in dreams or to those with second sight, and capable of journey away from body. Besides its pre-existence, Amerindians believed that it can travel to distant places and visit land of the dead. Disease, disability, loss of memory, etc, are thought to be due to absence of free soul. But science has now shown that many such disorders or disabilities take place due to damage or loss in the memory of DNA. They believe that Shaman, with supernormal powers, e.g., as healer, seer or conductor of souls, contacts spirits in ecstatic state, which enable him to frequent spirit realms either to bring back wandering or stolen souls of sick persons, or to serve as guide to souls of deceased to land of the dead. Soul wandering, specially in youth, was interpreted by the Sioux as a vision quest, when one was chosen for a holy career. With permanent departure of free soul, occurred death and consequent evaporation of life or breath soul. After death, it was thought that free soul travels, along Milky Way, and goes through tests and ordeals before passing into land of the dead.

The Quran clarifies the concept:

"It is Allah Who takes the souls at death, and

those that die not, during their sleep. Those on whom He has passed the decree of death, He keeps back . But the rest, He send s for a term appointed. Verily, in this are Signs for those who reflect." 39-42

Anthroposophy, an esoteric movement, was founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), strongly influenced by Goethe, whose scientific works he edited. He thought that man is reborn many times. Universe and man, he believed, have evolved through three states of mind and matter. Early phases, astral and etheric, were characterized by intuitive and clairvoyant modes of consciousness and rarefied forms of matter. These are believed to exist still, but are now concealed by physical matter and intellectual consciousness. They can be recovered and used purposefully by meditation and other practices. The birth of Jesus Christ was considered as central event of human history. Man had evolved to a point where material existence had caused him to forget his spiritual capacities. Christ came to reverse this trend, inaugurating an era of spiritual reintegration.

In Conclusion

From above discussion following conclusions emerge, that man:

i) ventured into metaphysical and spiritual areas of which he had no knowledge at all,
ii) developed hypotheses on basis of partial knowledge,
iii) projected and extrapolated data of physical world to metaphysical and spiritual realm,
iv) extended human experiences to spiritual realm
v) went too far in extending his conjecture in the name of mere logic or philosophy,
vi) without observation, experimentation and research accepted ideas as dogmas,
vii) was frightened by phenomena of nature, viii) fell victim to superstition, and ix) sank deep into ignorance.

In such situations theology continued to augment and strength information and knowledge, in different societies at different times. Faculties of reasoning and scientific information unfolding around, with time, also played their full part to take man to light, out from darkness of ignorance, superstition and mere conjecture. See 2-257, 5-16, 14-1, 14-5, 33-43, 57-9, and 65-11.

Whenever people invented and multiplied dogmas of polytheism and atheism to the extent that the truth was obscured, God revealed theology, from time to time, through His Prophets: The Quran illustrates the fact:

"We (Allah) will show them Our Signs in the universe, and in their own-selves, until it becomes manifest to them that this is the Truth." 41-53


"Indeed We (Allah) sent Noah to his people, and he said: 'O my people! Worship Allah. You have no other god except Him. Verily, I fear for you the punishment of a Great Day." 7-59


"To Aad, (We sent) their brother Huud; he said: 'O my people! Worship Allah. You have no other god, save Him. Will you not ward off?" 7-65

"And to Thamuud (We sent) their brother Saalih; he said: 'O my people! Worship Allah. You have no other god, save Him." 7-73

"And to Midyan (We sent) their brother Shuaib; he said: 'O my people! Worship Allah. You have no other god save Him." 7-85 Also see following verses: Abraham (Peace be upon him): 16-120 Elias (Peace be upon him): 37-123 to 129 "Verily, We have raised in every nation an apostle (proclaiming) Worship Allah and shun false gods." 16-36

Prophets were sent to their peoples or nations with revelation of truth for their guidance. But the last Prophet was sent for all peoples, because by that time the world was to integrate and human faculties had developed to a degree that they could take stand on reason:

"Say, O Muhammad! Verily, I am the Apostle of Allah to you all." 7-158

Besides Prophets, Reformers and Guides were also sent: "..Verily, We (Allah) established him (Dhul Qarnain) in the earth, and We gave him ways and means of everything.." 18-84